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THE BUKIDNON OF MINDANAO
FAY-COOPER COLE
FIELDIANA: ANTHROPOLOGY
VOLUME 46
Published by
CHICAGO NATURAL HISTORY MUSEUM
APRIL 23, 1956
•••'' . '•'x * '''' . •.^^•'••'/10yi^'^'^^>jykV^?9'M^
FIELDIANA: ANTHROPOLOGY
A Continuation of the
ANTHROPOLOGICAL SERIES
of
FIELD MUSEUM OF NATURAL HISTORY
VOLUME 46
CHICAGO NATURAL HISTORY MUSEUM
CHICAGO, U.S.A.
1956
TnEUBRMnrOFTHF
MAY 7 1356
UMVOMHt fl^ lULUiOiS
Editors
PAUL S. MARTIN
Chief Curator, Department of Anthropology
LILLIAN A. ROSS
Associate Editor, Scientific Publications
THE BUKIDNON OF MINDANAO
THE BUKIDNON OF MINDANAO
FAY-COOPER COLE
Research Associate, Malaysian Ethnology Professor Emerittis of Anthropology, The University of Chicago
FIELDIANA: ANTHROPOLOGY
VOLUME 46
Published by
CHICAGO NATURAL HISTORY MUSEUM
APRIL 23, 1956
Printed with the Assistance of
The Marian and Adolph Lichtstern Fund Jor Anthropological Research
Department of Anthropology The University of Chicago
PRINTED IN THE UNITED STATES OF AMERICA BY CHICAGO NATURAL HISTORY MUSEUM PRESS
Preface
The material presented in this volume was gathered in the first seven months of 1910, while I conducted the R. F. Cummings Philippine Ex- pedition for Field Museum of Natural History (now Chicago Natural His- tory Museum). During that period a detailed study was made of the every- day life, customs and beliefs of the Bukidnon of north-central Mindanao in the Philippines, and collections were made to illustrate that life in the Museum.
These people usually refer to themselves as Higa6nan, "mountain dwellers," but they are better known as Bukidnon, a name applied to the mountain people by the coastal Bisayan. This latter appellation has caused some confusion in the literature, since it also is applied by the coastal dwellers to the interior peoples of Negros, Nueva Ecija and Panay. Span- ish writers often used this term, or Monteses, for all highlanders (Mozo, 1763).
As this study was approaching completion, a situation was developing in the Davao Gulf region of Southern Mindanao which made an immedi- ate transfer to that area seem imperative. Several months were spent in that district before a tropical illness necessitated my return to America. A slow recovery, installation of the Philippine collections, publication of the Davao Gulf material (Cole, 1913), and other duties led to the putting aside of the Bukidnon material for later publication. Before that time ar- rived World War I intervened. Later I returned to Malaysia to conduct studies in Indonesia and The Malay States. In 1924 I became associated with the University of Chicago, and my Mindanao materials remained, for the most part, unpublished except for a brief summary (Cole, 1945b).
I had hoped that upon retirement I might return to the Bukidnon and develop an acculturation study based on my early work. Unsettled condi- tions after World War II made the accomplishment of the task so uncertain that it has not been undertaken. However, the Rev. Ralph Lynch, S.J., has recently dealt with some of the changes in Bukidnon between my stay and 1950 (see Lynch, 1955).
At the time of my visit to the Bukidnon, the American government was constructing good trails into the interior, was forcing the natives into model villages, and was supplying them with plows and other facilities for farm-
5
6 PREFACE
ing the grasslands. New crops were being introduced, schools were being opened, and new ideas of government were being urged on the people. Change was rapid in the area under control and was considerable in the peripheral districts. It was evident that this was the last opportunity to see these people in anything like the old life;' or to make a representative collection.
Certain trends were even then evident. The newly established villages were, for the most part, replicas of the less advanced settlements of the Christianized Bisayan of the coast. The datos, or local headmen, were being replaced by "elected" village officials, and in some towns the dress was changing towards that of the civilized peoples.
Peripheral settlements, not under direct control, were also affected, but here two lines of resistance were becoming apparent. The distinctive dress of both men and women was being elaborated, and no small part of the "wealth" was being spent for cloth and ornaments. A second line of with- drawal into the old ways was in religion. The aggressive intervention in daily affairs by the American governor — Frederick Lewis — was weakening the political leadership of the datos or local headmen. Meanwhile the im- portance of the baylans or mediums was increasing. The ceremonies, which the mediums conducted, were assuming increasing importance to the extent that they dominated the social and religious life. As other as- pects of the old life weakened, interest in the spirit world increased.
Following the time of my visit, the Bukidnon Company, under the leadership of former Commissioner Dean C. Worcester, established cattle holdings in the area. Later the Del Monte Company introduced pineapple culture, and with the advent of World War II the Japanese took control. Since the war there has been a steady migration of coastal peoples into the area, as well as settlers from other regions of the Philippines.
It is evident that the old life is largely gone. A few marginal settlements retain part of the former customs, but only a part. Given the background, the surviving Bukidnon should offer ideal material for an acculturation study. It seems unlikely that I shall make that investigation, but I can furnish rather an intimate picture of what the Bukidnon were in 1910 be- fore the many disruptive forces mentioned came into play.
The material which follows is primarily descriptive. It is drawn from notes long "cold," and is devoid of many lines of investigation which might be employed today. Nevertheless it is a rather full description of a function- ing native culture.
The procedure in the investigation was for us — the writer and his wife — to settle in a community for several weeks, during which we sought to participate in, and to observe and record, the daily life. Securing the Museum collection was a major help, since each object was discussed in
\
PREFACE 7
detail with the owner. If it was a trap or lure we saw it in actual operation; if it was an instrument employed in agriculture, weaving and the like, we observed and photographed its use. Details of dress were studied and household objects were recorded as used. Many hours of animated dis- cussion dealt with the relative value of different kinds of traps and snares. We hunted with the men, using only their devices, and later they went with us while we demonstrated the use of guns. As friendships and con- fidences were built up, we were invited and took part in all activities, including the ceremonies. These were carefully recorded and photographed and the meaning of various parts was discussed with several participants.
Subjects such as religion, warfare, slavery, and family relations were taken up, first with the leaders and then with the average person. In all cases, even in regard to items which seemed trivial and trite, information was sought from more than one individual in each village. Village was checked against village and discrepancies were studied and evaluated. It is our belief that this volume furnishes as reliable a picture of native life as was possible for an outsider to obtain in a few months.
In passing it should be noted that we contributed considerably to the pleasures of the people. Our phonograph and the records we made of their songs were major attractions. Our pneumatic mattresses were so fascinating that they often had to be demonstrated to wondering visitors. Our food and ways of eating, our dress — in fact, all our strange ways — were as intriguing to them as theirs were to us. Our medicine kit was an additional aid in establishing cordial relations. We never allowed it to take the place of curative ceremonies but we added its magic to that of the mediums. The success of an investigator in a functioning culture, it is our belief, will be in direct ratio to the extent he participates in the daily life.
Beyer (1917, p. 42) and others have stated that the Bukidnon culture is probably similar to that of the pre-Spanish Bisayan. Outside contact had considerably modified the life and beliefs of the latter long prior to the Spanish invasion. Such influences had filtered into the interior but in much lesser amount. Later Spanish influence is evident even in remote settle- ments.
The dialects spoken by Christians and pagans appear to be very similar. Recent linguistic studies and surveys of Bukidnon Province tend to treat all the dialects found there as variants of Manobo. Atherton calls the dia- lect of Northern and Central Bukidnon by the term Binokid (Atherton, 1953). Abrams and Svelmoe (1953) say that the dialect spoken at Lum- bayo, just east of Mailag, is Binokid, but that of nearby Tigwa is similar to Manobo.
With two exceptions the method used in transcribing native terms is that used by American linguists for Indian languages. When a capital E
8 PREFACE
appears in the body of the word it stands for e"; the symbol ii is a post palatal nasal n.
Except for collecting representative word lists, we did not attempt a study of the language during our stay. However, a Bisayan student from Misamis, who accompanied us part of the time, insisted that the Bukidnon dialects were very close to the language spoken on the North Coast.
Aside from instances of physical mixture with peripheral tribes, the Bukidnon closely approximate the Christianized people. It is probable that in many respects the Bukidnon do furnish us with a glimpse of old time beliefs and customs which have, for the most part, vanished from the coast.
The narrative is written in the present tense, but unless otherwise indicated, it refers to conditions existing in 1910.
I am indebted to Father Frank Lynch, S.J., for various comments on the Bukidnon and their history. George Talbot prepared the drawings for the text figures, and Phillip H. Lewis made the map.
FAY-COOPER COLE
Santa Barbara, California May 30, 1954
\
Contents
PAGE
List of Illustrations 11
I. The Country and the People 13
Some General Observations 16
Physical Types 18
Dress and Ornament 23
Objects for Personal Use 31
Settlements 34
Household Inventory 43
II. Making a Living 45
Hunting and Trapping 45
Fishing 48
Agriculture and Its Rituals 51
Medicines 57
Household and Village Industries 57
Basketry 57
Weaving 61
Pottery 63
Carving and Decorative Art 63
III. The Life Cycle 68
Pregnancy and Birth 68
Naming 70
Child Life 71
Marriage and Divorce 72
Death, Burial and Inheritance 76
IV. Social and Political Organization 79
The Dato 79
Crime and Law 81
Warfare 81
Slavery _^ 86
V. The Spirit World 89
The Baylans 89
The Spirits 91
The Gimokod 91
The Alabydnon 93
The Kaliga-on 96
VI. The Ceremonies 99
Pangampo 99
Panalikot or Omaldgad 100
9
10 CONTENTS
PAGE
Pagilis or Pamltwas 102
Pamahdndi 103
Kasaboahdn 105
Pangolo-ambit 106
Kaliga-on 107
VII. The TuNGUD Movement 118
VIII. Music and Dancing 119
Dances 119
Musical Instruments 120
Songs 122
IX. Celestial Bodies and the Seasons 123
X. Stories and Legends 126
How Sumilao was Founded .126
The Lake Called Danao 126
The Great Drought and the Origin of the Moros 127
Origin of the Races 127
Adam and Eve 128
The Flood 128
Origin of Monkeys 1 29
Bulanawan 129
The Story of Domakalangan 129
The Lake near Sili 130
The Aguio Tales 130
XI. Conclusions 133
Bibliography 135
Index 137
\
List of Illustrations
Text Figures
PAGE
1. Bukidnon Province and adjacent territory 15
2. The Bukidnon Highlands 17
3. A deep canyon cutting through the Bukidnon Highlands 17
4. Bukidnon man showing Negrito mixture 19
5. Bukidnon man of coastal Malayan (Bisayan) type 20
6. Bukidnon woman of Bisayan type 21
7. Bukidnon man of "Caucasian" type 22
8. Bukidnon woman of "Caucasian" type 23
9. Bukidnon man of mixed type 24
10. Bukidnon woman's dress 25
1 1 . Bukidnon man's dress 25
12. Woman's dress showing embroidered shoulder cloth 26
13. Woman's dress showing embroidered cloth on back of head 27
14. Man's embroidered carrying bag 28
15. Detail of decoration on carrying bag 28
16. Man's embroidered turban 29
17. Man's dress showing method of wearing turban 30
18. Man's hat, upper and lower sides 31
19. Bamboo and palm bark hats 31
20. Mutilated teeth 32
21. Toothbrush, tweezers, stone used in filing teeth, and bead neckband 33
22. Hillside clearing 35
23. Gabi (taro) field 35
24. House under construction 37
25. Small house near the fields 37
26. Tree house on the Pulangi River 38
27. Interior of Bukidnon dwelling 38
28. House interior showing box-like cradle 39
29. Wooden chest inlaid with mother-of-pearl 39
30. Rattan wall hanger containing coconut shell cups 40
31. Rice mortar and pestle 41
32. Rice winnowers 41
33. Bukidnon woman grinding corn with stone corn-grinder 42
34. Torch holder 43
35. Bamboo water carrier 43
36. Small bow and arrow used by boys 47
37. Bukidnon spears 47
38. Torch holder used in hunting frogs 47
39. Deer and pig trap 48
11
12 LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS
PAGE
40. Deadfall trap for deer- and pigs 49
41 . Slip-noose trap for wild chickens and lizards 50
42. Funnel fish trap 50
43. Cone fish trap 51
44. Rice knife ^ 54
45. Large carrying baskets 58
46. Large baskets used on horses or carabao 59
47. Trinket basket (L) and rice basket (R) 60
48. A group of small baskets 60
49. Rice bags 61
50. Stripping hemp 62
51. Details of hemp stripper 63
52. Firing pottery 64
53. "Guitars" or boat lutes 64
54. Circular shield showing front 65
55. Circular shield showing hand grip 65
55A. Designs in patchwork decoration 66
56. Armed warriors dancing at wedding 74
57. Drinking rice wine at a funeral 77
58. Warrior in battle dress 83
59. Warrior with padded coat and distinctive headdress 85
60. Protective bandolier called talian 87
61. Baylan and pupil 91
62. Sacrificing a fowl at the A'fl/e.ga-ow ceremony Ill
63. Making an offering at the Kaliga-on ceremony 112
64. Culmination of the Kaliga-on ceremony 113
65. Male dancers imitating the movements of hawks 120
66. Native violins with bows 121
67. Woman's musical instrument made from bamboo 121
\
L The Country and the People
The Province of Bukidnon lies in the north-central portion of Min- danao. For the most part it consists of a high plain which rises abruptly to a height of about 900 feet, just back of the coast of Cagayan, Misamis, now known as Cagayan de Oro, Misamis Oriental. On the east a forested mountain chain separates it from the broad valley of the Agusan River. These mountains run from north to south until, as they approach the southern end of the province, they turn toward the southwest to form the northern limits of the Province of Davao. Some high mountains appear there, but between them are low passes which afford access to the Gulf of Davao. On the west of Bukidnon another range runs north and south, forming the boundary with the Mohammedan-dominated Province of Lanao (see map, fig. 1).
These mountain chains have afforded some protection from the more warlike tribes to the east and south, as well as from the Moros. However, passes have allowed hostile raids in search of victims and slaves, while from time to time, renegade bands from Lake Lanao have taken refuge here. All have left their imprint, especially in the peripheral areas.
From a distance Bukidnon appears to be a high, broad, unbroken plain which rises gently toward the mountains. Actually its surface is cut by many deep and narrow north and south canyons with precipitous walls enclosing rushing streams. In places these canyons widen into valleys of some size, but the dominating feature is the great grass plain cut by deep gorges (figs. 2 and 3).
At one season the young cogon grass covers the tableland like a lawn. Later, when the rank grass has reached its full height, it is crested with white bloom. The natives with their simple tools are no match for the sturdy grass, so the lands, for the most part, have been left undisturbed save by wild pig and deer.
The province is cut nearly in half by the eighth parallel, which also serves roughly as the water divide. The Pulangi River and its tributaries start somewhat north of the line and flow to the south, but all other water courses flow north. The Pulangi — lower down known as the Rio Grande de Mindanao — is suitable for rafts throughout the area, but the only other
13
14 7 HE BUKIDNON OF MINDANAO
river of any considerable size, the Cagayan, has many rocky rapids which limit its use for travel.
The abrupt escarpment which borders'the coast, poor trails, lack of bridges over the many turbulent streams in the gorges, all have served to keep the territory from being over-run by the Bisayan of Misamis but have not been a protection against exploitation of the pagan Bukidnon by the Christians.
At the time of the governorship of Don Narciso Claveria (1844-49) settlements existed in the vicinity of Mount Balatocan, Cagayan Valley, and the Plateau. Many of these were short-lived but some fifteen towns of the Tagoloan Valley and Plateau districts were still flourishing in 1887 (Cartas, 1881, vol. 4, pp. 82-83; 1889, vol. 8, pp. 412-417; Pastells, 1916, vol. 2, pp. 140-141).
During the 1880's Jesuit missionaries made numerous trips into the interior and by the end of the decade were conducting a vigorous program of resettlement and Christianization. They found the grass plains mostly unsettled, while the people lived in scattered isolated villages along the edge of the forest or in small settlements bordering the water courses. Every inducement was used to persuade the people to estaljlish towns on the plain. There they were assisted in building houses similar to those on the coast; they were supplied with some tools and were taught the cultiva- tion of coffee, cacao, corn and hemp. Churches were established and so successful were the Jesuits that by 1893 they were able to report 6,600 con- verts out of a population estimated at 13,000 (Blair and Robertson, 1903-9, vol. 43, pp. 23, 27, 203, 209, 277, 289). The evident advantages of the more settled life led some of those who had refused the protection of the Church to establish compact villages on the periphery of the plain. How- ever, nearly every family still kept its hillside clearing and at times the villages were nearly deserted.
Ultimately a surplus of coffee, hemp and cacao led to increased trade with the Bisayan city of Cagayan on the coast, and for a time it appeared that the efforts of the Jesuits were resulting in the establishment of a self- supporting community. Unfortunately these friendly, helpful efforts were not shared in by certain well-to-do caciques of the coast or by the Chinese merchants. Parties of Bukidnon, laden with produce, would go to Caga- yan, where their innocence of trade and finance was taken advantage of. Low prices for their products were paid in trade for over-valued objects they desired. Many were induced to go into debt and signed papers which led to virtual peonage. When they did not appear as scheduled with hemp or other products, the leaders would secure a judgment and then would go inland to collect.
Fig. 1. Bukidnon Province and adjacent territory. 15
16 THE BUKIDNON OF MINDANAO
While the missionaries remained they afforded some protection to the villagers, but with the insurrection against Spain and the fall of Manila to the Americans in 1898, the interior natives were left to the mercy of their exploiters. As a result many of the villages were virtually deserted and most Bukidnon reverted to the old life at the edge of the forest.
When American officials, acting under orders of Commissioner Worces- ter, sought to establish contact with the Bukidnon, they were opposed in every way possible by the caciques and traders of Cagayan. Even though Bukidnon trade had dropped to a low point it still was too profit- able to be lost. This attitude had the opposite effect to that intended. Commissioner Worcester made Bukidnon a field of special attention and appointed Frederick Lewis and Manuel Fortich as Governor and Lieuten- ant-Governor, respectively, with orders to open up the country.
Under these energetic leaders, old villages were re-established, new model towns were organized, grassland agriculture was assisted by the introduction of plows and draft animals, schools were opened and local governments set up. Good trails were built from the coast to Malay balay, forty miles inland, and later these were extended to other areas. Covered bridges were constructed over streams in the gorges. Where funds were needed for such items as plows and steel girders they were supplied by the government, but construction was done by Bukidnon under American supervisors.
Trade to the coast was supervised, while the appearance of American traders led to active competition and more suitable returns to the pro- ducers (Worcester, 1914, vol. 2, pp. 610-29; Cole, 1913, p. 163). Today trade in hemp, coffee, and corn continues with the Bisayan and Chinese traders of Misamis; there is also some indirect trade for weapons and brass boxes with the Moros of Lake Lanao and with the tribes of Davao Gulf.
This brief sketch indicates that so much acculturation had already taken place by 1910 that the towns under direct control were not suitable for the purposes of the investigation proposed. Hence the pagan villages of Mambwaya, Langawan and Dagondalahon on the west, and Mailag and Limbayao in the south-central area, were chosen. Other settlements were visited for shorter periods. At the time of our visit Mailag was strongly acculturated but still retained many old traits. Limbayao was little in- fluenced either by the Americans or other Christianized peoples, but it showed relatively few distinctive Bukidnon traits. It probably should be classed as peripheral Manobo.
SOME GENERAL OBSERVATIONS
On the borders of Bukidnon territory and along the Pulangi River iso- lated settlements made up of tree houses or dwellings placed high on piles
Fig. 2. The Bukidnon Highlands.
Fig. 3. A deep canyon cutting through the Bukidnon Highlands.
17
18 THE BUKIDNON OF MINDANAO
were occasionally seen. They were set in clearings in which crops were raised and which also were of advantage to the occupants in case of an enemy attack. In rare cases they were further protected by bamboo palisades. These tree houses differ but little from the high field houses near the larger settlements.
It is claimed that in former times each district had a petty ruler or dato who lived in a large house raised high on stilts. Such dwellings did not exist in 1910, but the descriptions indicate that they resembled those of the Bagobo of the Davao Gulf region to the south (Cole, 1913, p. 66).
Here it should be noted that aside from the "long-house" of Borneo, Sumatra, and a few other areas, the typical Malayan village was made up of several individual family dwellings. Each village was under the guidance of a local headman. Beyond this unit there was no higher authority until Indian, and later Mohammedan, influences brought in the idea of a ruler — dato or rajah — and the development of states (Cole, 1945a). The tribes of the southern end of the islands had felt these influences to such an extent that the chief dato of the Bagobo was the paramount ruler with several subordinate datos below him (Cole, 1913, pp. 55, 95 ff.). Certain other tribes had a similar but less well-defined organization. Also, the near- by Moros of the Lanao district had well-developed ideas of the state and powerful rulers.
It is to be suspected that whatever development along this line had taken place in Bukidnon was due to ideas borrowed from their neighbors. The term dato is used by the Bukidnon but it is applied to the headman of a village. It is doubtful if these people ever had rulers with control over more than one or two settlements.
Whatever the former power of the dato, he has been replaced, at least in name, in most villages by the "presidente," supposedly chosen by popu- lar vote, although the idea of headman is still strong. In earlier times the headman would have been a warrior of renown entitled to wear distinctive dress. Some of the older men still possess such garments, which they wear on great occasions.
PHYSICAL TYPES
During the author's stay with these people physical measurements and observations were made on about one hundred individuals. Unfortunate- ly these are not now available. In the years which intervened, the measure- ment sheets have been mislaid. Hence, the statements which follow are drawn from field notes and the study of photographs without other veri- fication. Physically the people represent gradations between three types. The first exhibits strong evidences of Negrito (pygmy) mixture; the second
Fig. 4. Bukidnon man showing Negrito mixture.
19
20
THE BUKIDNON OF MINDANAO
Fig. 5. Bukidnon man of coastal Malayan (Bisayan) type.
and largest group resembles the coast Bisayan; while the third has many features approximating the Europeans (figs. 4-9).
Evidence of an early pygmy population is found in nearly every district of Mindanao, but is particularly strong in the Ata, a small scattered group in the mountains south and southeast of the Bukidnon territory. While visiting settlements on the southern tributaries of the Pulangi River the writer saw about fifty people called Tugauanum who had come over the mountains to trade. Judging by the small stature of some, and the dark skin, crisp, curly hair and broad to flat noses of many, the group appeared to show considerable infusion of Negrito blood (Cole, 1913, ch. V). Mixture with this early type has given to part of the Bukidnon the characteristics of the little blacks.
The second — Bisayan-like — grouping presents a rather short, slightly built, brachycephalic population with high heads. Zygomatic arches are wide and outstanding; eye slits are often slanting, with the Mongolian fold common. Most noses are relatively high, but broad flat noses with concave bridges are frequent. Lips range from thin to medium; hair is coarse, dark brown to black, and is inclined to be wavy; skin color ranges
THE COUNTRY AND THE PEOPLE
21
Fig. 6. Bukidnon woman of Bisayan type.
from light yellowish to dark reddish brown. This dominant type fades into the Southern Mongoloid classification.
A third, minority, division includes a considerable number of persons. Here we often find high mesocephalic heads, vaulted foreheads, narrow noses, rather thin lips and "strong" chins. The impression is distinctly "European" except for color. This type might be accounted for by mixture with early Indian, Arab, or Spanish invaders were it not for the fact that a similar situation exists even in the most remote areas of Malaysia. As
22
THE BUKIDNON OF MINDANAO
Fig. 7. Bukidnon man of "Caucasian" type.
Stated in an earlier publication (Cole, 1945a, p. 330): "We must postulate an early Caucasoid element in southeastern Asia which has left its imprint on the later proto- and true Malayan." \
These three elements do not form distinct groups; they freely inter- marry and every gradation is found among them. Father Pablo Pastells in a letter to Father Provincial Capell, S.J., states that the Monteses (Bu- kidnon) consist of two groups adjacent to the Manobo of Agusan, whose habits they approach. Father Clotet says they exist in three groups, one of which is close to the Manobo of Agusan (Clotet, 1889, in Blair and Robertson, vol. 43, p. 289).
THE COUxNTRY AND THE PEOPLE
23
^
Fig. 8. Bukidnon woman of "Caucasian" type.
The population in 1886-87 was estimated by the Governor of Misamis to be 18,000, and by Beyer in 1916 as 48,500 (Pastells, 1916, vol. 2, p. 140; Beyer, 1917, p. 41).
DRESS AND ORNAMENT
One of the marks of resistance to outside ideas is the distinctive dress of the Bukidnon. In his recital of Bukidnon life Father Clotet describes the
24
THE BUKIDNON OF MINDANAO
Fig. 9. Bukidnon man of mixed type.
\
dress in detail and then adds '"of all these vain things . . . they are de- spoiled when they receive the health giving water of baptism." In return they received medals, rosaries and scapularies (Blair and Robertson, 1903-9, vol. 43, pp. 272, 290 ff.). Thus dress became the mark of the true Bukidnon, who wore it proudly and defiantly at nearly all times.
Seen in a group these people appear quite different from all other pagan groups of the island, for the women resemble animated bed quilts, while
THE COUNTRY AND THE PEOPLE
25
Fig. 10. Bukidnon woman's dress.
Fig. 1 1 . Bukidnon man's dress.
the men are only slightly less colorful. A few garments are made of hemp, but the greater part are of cotton trade material from the coast. That this is not a recent development is attested by the account of Father Clotet mentioned above.
The voluminous skirts of the women are often strips of red, blue and white cloth sewed together; or squares and rectangles of cloth may be out- lined by white strips. A deep lower section of applique or embroidered design may represent triangles, zigzag lines or realistic figures. Jackets, which receive more attention, may be nearly covered with patchwork or designs embroidered in colored yarns. Many of the patterns are realistic — men, flowers and fruits — but others are conventional figures which make the garment "look pretty." Embroidered cloths, usually red, are worn over the shoulders, and decorated belts encircle the waists (figs. 10-13).
26
THE BUKIDNON OF MINDANAO
Fig. 12. Woman's dress showing embroidered shoulder cloth
In addition to the body coverings the women wear large combs with intricate designs inlaid in brass or mother-of-pearl. To the knots of hair on the backs of their heads they add switches. These large rolls of hair are then covered with embroidered cloths which fall to the sides of their heads just back of the ears (fig. 13). Tassels of yellow yarn are suspended back of the ears or are tied in holes pierced in the lobes or helices. Earrings and ear plugs are commonly worn.
THE COUNTRY AND THE PEOPLE
27
Fig. 1 3. Woman's dress showing embroidered cloth on back of head.
Not content with such ornamentation the women also possess necklaces of beads and seeds, or necklaces skillfully made from boar's bristles. Brace- lets of brass or shell often encircle the forearm, and finger rings which cover the upper joints, toe rings, and heavy brass anklets are prized possessions (see fig. 6). The latter are cast so as to leave a central groove in which pellets are placed to form rattles. As the woman walks the rings and anklets "make music wherever she goes." (Clotet, in Blair and Robertson, vol. 43, p. 292.)
The dress of the man is nearly as colorful. Embroidered coats and long trousers held up by decorated belt bands are the main garments. Since these possess no pockets each man carries a carrying bag; this is suspended against the left side by means of a shoulder strap which passes over the right shoulder (figs. 11, 14, 15).
Personal possessions are carried in these bags or inside embroidered turbans. Hats of Bisayan type are much worn. These are round, made of
be
28
THE COUNTRY AND THE PEOPLE
29
Fig. 16. Man's embroidered turban.
bamboo or rattan, and have spreading bamboo headbands inside. These bands also serve as receptacles for small prized objects. A few hats made of palm bark or wood also appear (figs. 16-19).
This account of dress indicates that the Bukidnon are sharply differ- entiated from the neighboring Manobo to the east, from the Mandaya to the southeast, and from the Davao tribes to the south (see Garvan, 1931, ch. VI; Cole, 1913).
Quite as important as dress is the proper treatment of the teeth. Adults customarily have the incisors cut horizontally across, about midway of their length, or bored through and inlaid with brass wire. All are blackened and are further stained by the spittle of the betel nut (fig. 20). Tattooing is not practiced.
30
THE BUKIDNON OF MINDANAO
Fig. 17. Man's dress showing method of wearing turban.
N
Women wear bangs over the forehead but allow strands of hair to fall in front of the ears. The remaining hair is combed straight back and is tied in a large knot at the back of the head. Switches often are added. Most women and unmarried boys shave the eyebrows (figs. 6 and 12). The man's hair usually is cut rather short, but a few allow it to grow and wind it around the head to be tied in a knot. This, they said, was formerly the custom, and agrees with the account of Father Clotet (1889, m Blair and Robertson, 1903-9, vol. 43, p. 293). Elaborate head cloths are worn like turbans by most men, but distinguished warriors may wear pointed head- dresses and other distinctive clothing (fig. 17).
THE COUNTRY AND THE PEOPLE
31
Fig. 18. Man's hat, upper and lower sides.
Fig. 19. Bamboo and palm bark hats.
OBJECTS FOR PERSONAL USE
We now turn to those objects and materials which, while not dress, still form a necessary part of a person's accouterments. Both men and women chew the nut of the areca palm— betel nut — and the materials and objects related to its use are necessities wherever the person may be. The quid when ready for use is called tinalad. This is prepared by cutting buyo {Piper betel L.) leaves into strips which are spread with a thin coating of lime. A nut is then cut lengthwise, usually into four pieces, and these are
32
THE BUKIDNON OF MINDANAO
Fig. 20. Mutilated teeth.
wrapped in the leaves. Tinalad when chewed produces a blood red spitde which is freely expectorated. No portion is intentionally swallowed, but enough is absorbed to give a slightly stimulating effect. Tobacco often is added to the quid, which may be pushed up under the upper lip for a time. Continued use of the tinalad discolors the teeth, but it also seems to assist in the preservation of those which have been mutilated.
Connected with the betel nut chewing are certain necessary accessories, first of all, the lime. This is secured by burning shells and dropping them into cold water. They are then crushed between the fingers and when dried produce a good grade of lime, which is carried in a small, incised bamboo tube, one end of which is fitted with a sifter made of interwoven strips of rattan. Betel leaf {Piper betel L.) often is carried in a double pouch, but the usual device is a small brass box with compartments for nuts and leaves. Some boxes are made locally, but fine containers of metal are ob- tained in trade with the Moros. Lime containers are habitually carried in the men's carrying bags or in the women's baskets.
Betel nut is second only to rice as a Bukidnon necessity. We shall find it appearing constantly in dealings with the spirit world, as well as in the more important ceremonial and social events. Old people who have lost
THE COUNTRY AND THE PEOPLE
33
Fig. 21. Toothbrush, tweezers, stone used in fihng teeth, and bead neckband.
their teeth or those whose teeth have been so mutilated that they cannot chew carry small mortars and pestles with which they crush and mix the ingredients. Frequently a small brush made of boar's hairs is attached to the owner's garment by a string of beads. It is worn like an ornament but is in reality a toothbrush (fig. 21).
In this connection mutilation of the teeth is to be considered. When a child is old enough to chew betel nut, that is, at about the age of 10, its teeth should be cut and blackened. This is the style and a grown person with white teeth would be laughed at and asked when he would be old enough to chew tinalad. The usual method is to file the upper incisor teeth across, about midway, and then to break them off (fig. 20). Another method of ornamentation is to bore holes through the teeth and inlay pieces of copper or brass wire. In addition to mutilation most teeth are blackened although they are already somewhat discolored by the use of betel nut. A cold knife is held in the flame and smoke of burning guava bark, and the "sweat" which is deposited on the blade is rubbed on the teeth several nights in succession. This must be repeated at intervals to maintain the proper color.
34 THE BUKIDNON OF MINDANAO
Another "ornament" worn by the man or carried in his bag is a pair of iron tweezers which take the place of a razor. Facial hairs are few in number and those which do appear are grasped tightly with the instru- ment and pulled out (see fig. 21).
In each carrying bag or basket will be found a small pitch-covered or water-tight bamboo container for flint and steel. This is the common fire- making device, but in case of need a bamboo outfit is used. The latter is made by splitting a section of bamboo and cutting a groove across the convex side. The other piece is cut to an edge and this is rubbed rapidly in the groove. The friction produces enough heat to ignite the shavings or a bit of tree cotton placed beneath the groove. This method is known and used throughout Malaysia. It has been stated by Clotet (1889, pp. 300- 301) that the fire syringe was once used in this area but none was seen during our stay nor were we able to secure data concerning its use.
SETTLEMENTS
In an earlier paragraph we noted that in former times some settlements along the border may have consisted of several dwellings erected near to the long-house of a recognized leader — such as is found in the Davao Gulf region. All had disappeared by 1910. At the time of the Jesuit entry into Bukidnon few settlements existed on the grasslands. This is easily explained by the fact that coarse cogon grass was an almost insuperable obstacle to cultivation with the primitive tools available.
The easy and usual way to prepare a field is to choose a wooded valley or hillside, girdle or cut down the trees, and, at the proper time, burn them. The land thus cleared is suitable for a one-year crop of dry land rice, abaca (hemp), or possibly tobacco, although this is grown only in limited quantities. As the cogon grass begins to invade the open spaces, the field is planted to camotes, gabi {[Colocasia esculentum (L.) Schott.] — a variety of taro) or perhaps to a few banana trees. This can be continued for two or three years, after which new clearings are made (figs. 22-23).
Such a procedure does not encourage construction of substantial houses. In general a few upright saplings form the framework to which the sup- ports for the bamboo floor are tied. Cross poles join the tops at a height of about six feet. From the corners light poles make a A at each end and to these a ridge pole is tied. Other light timbers run from the top to the upper stringers to which the thatch roof is laid. Sides are of beaten bark or mats, but a gap normally exists between them and the overhanging roof (figs. 24-25) (see also Garvan, 1931, p. 17). Nearly every family still possesses such a dwelling near to the forest. They are within hailing distance of each other, but do not make up a compact settlement. We may accept the
Fig. 22. Hillside clearing.
Fig. 23. Gabi (taro) field.
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36 THE BUKIDNON OF MINDANAO
natives' statements that this was the early condition. A few tree houses are still seen, set high above the ground. Long poles from the ground to the sides or floor help to secure the structure. Entrance is by means of a ladder which can be drawn up in case of need (fig. 26). Construction is much like that just described.
Under the prompting of the Jesuits, and later of the American governor, villages were established on the grasslands. In general these differed but little from the Bisayan towns along the coast. Similar villages began to appear in the peripheral areas but in these, houses are generally without side walls. The type of construction is illustrated in figure 24.
Floors of the dwellings consist of broad bamboo strips on which grass or rattan mats are laid. The latter are made by lacing cords around narrow strips of rattan, much like the pattern of Venetian blinds (fig. 27). In case of a driving rain these are used as siding. The more substantial town houses may be occupied by two or more families, although the tendency is toward